The Great Gatsby Essays (1085 words) - The Great Gatsby,

The Great Gatsby Psychological evaluation Patient: Nick Carraway Session: 1 Time: 5:00 Wednesday Toady a new patient came in named Nick Carraway. Carraway is a struggling bond salesman that just moved next to that big place on the island, Gatsbys place. He seems to like his new home, but he often talks about how the homesickness he feels is relating back to his fathers conduct. Reserving judgments is a matter of infinite hope. I am still a little afraid of missing something if I forget that, as my father snobbishly suggested and I snobbishly repeat, a sense of fundamental decencies is parceled out unequally at birth(Fitzgerald 6). It kind of struck me how Carraways attitude could be shaped by a simple code of conduct. He began to talk about how this person eluded some moral standards. I wanted to no more riotous excursions with privileged glimpses into the human heart . Only Gastby, was exempt from my reaction(6). He said that he gave this a reason because Gatsby was, basically, everything Carraway hoped to be. I thought a while before I gave my reply. I explained to him that li fe was about how rich a man was in experience, not how much material he has. He kind of shrugged it off like it was a cheap psychiatrist line. The more he told me about Gastby, it seemed the more he felt he needed to emulate him. He then began to talk of a Mr. Tom Buchannan. Tom was not to Carraways liking. He seemed harsh and too masculine to have any relation in Nicks life. Nick is simple, innocent, and he is just starting out. From what he has told me about him, Tom seems to be a bigot of sorts, not to fond of Nicks existence in this side of town at all. How does tom fit in to all this, I asked myself. Tom is Daisys husband; Daisy is Nicks cousin. Kind of confusing, eh? Carraway started to finish up the session with a story of how he and Tom took a trip to Manhattan. On the way they stopped at Wilsons Gas Station to meet Toms girl. I was shocked by this finding. Nick carried a new burden upon his shoulders. Should he tell Daisy about they affair? I told him not to worry and to wa it until next week. Session: 2 Time: 5:00 Wednesday (a week later) The session began usually how all others do. Some preliminary banter settled the mood; however, Carraway quickly rose to the point that had been troubling him. The same point that ended the conversation last week. What can I do? He asked. I mean do I tell Daisy or not. Its kind of importanther well being I mean. If tom isnt happy she should know, right? I cant tell you what to do, I retorted however I can help you with options. He sat there with a blank face. What I mean is this, I began again maybe you dont have to tell Daisy. It is not your job to get into their affairs, but family is family. Please continue about Toms girl. Shes Wilsons wife, correct? Yes, he answered. She is in her middle thirties. And faintly stout, but she carries her surplus flesh sensuously as some women can(29). Continue, I asked him. Her name is Myrtle. Thats really about it. Well maybe you could help Tom realize what he is doing. He is supposed to love Daisy. From what you told me Tom is the kind of person that will do the good if good is called for. Will he? he answered. He broke Myrtles nose that afternoon. I asked Carraway about his relationship with Gastby. He told me it really hadnt changed. Parties become more and more frequent. Session: 3 Time: See above time (two weeks later) Nick seemed more troubled than before. He had told he that the man that held his hopes and his dreams in the palm of his hand let him down. Gatsby, that man, was a bootlegger. A lot of people have been bootleggers. Im not justifying the behavior Im just saying it was the thing to do, I told him People say One time he killed a man(65). He explained to me that Gatsby is an Oxford man. Nick

Maratha Empire and Fort Essays

Maratha Empire and Fort Essays Maratha Empire and Fort Essay Maratha Empire and Fort Essay Raigad fort Raigad (Marathi: is a hill fortress situated in the modern day Raigad district of Maharashtra, India. The Maratha king Shivaji made the fort his capital in 1674 when he was crowned King of a Maratha Kingdom which later developed into the Maratha Empire eventually covering majority of modern day India. The fort, which rises 820 metres (2,700 ft) above sea level, is located in the Sahyadri mountain range. There are approximately 1400–1450 steps leading to the fort, though today a rope-way exists to reach the top of the fort. The fort was looted and destroyed by the British upon siege. History Shivaji Maharaj had seized the fort in 1656, then the fortress of Rairi, from the royal house of the Chandrarrao Mores, a junior or Cadet dynasty descended from the ancient Maurya imperial dynasty. The last More king (or raja) was a feudatory of the Sultan of Bijapur. Shivaji renovated and expanded the Fortress of Rairi and renamed it Raigad (the Kings Fort), the name he gave it when he selected it for his capital when he founded the Maratha empire. Rajgad, a hill fortress situated in Raigad District of Maharashtra, India was capital of Shivajis kingdom. Major features The fort was built by Chandrarao Mores in 1030. forts ruins today consist of the queens quarters, consisting of six chambers, with each chamber having its own private restroom with plumbing. The main palace was constructed using wood, of which only the bases of pillars remain. Ruins of three watch towers can be seen directly in front of the palace grounds overlooking an artificial lake called Ganga Sagar Lake created next to the fort. It also has a view of the execution point called Takmak Tok, a cliff from which the sentenced prisoners were thrown to their death. This areas is now fenced off. [1]. The fort also has ruins of the market, and it has such structure that one can shop even while riding or sitting astride a horse. The kings public Durbar has a replica of the original throne that faces the main doorway called the Nagarkhana Darwaja. This enclosure had been acoustically designed to aid hearing from the doorway to the throne. A secondary entrance, called the Mena Darwaja, was supposedly the private entrance of the royal ladies of the fort; it leads to the queens quarters. The erstwhile main entrance to the fort is the imposing Maha Darwaja. The convoy of the king and the king himself used the Palkhi Darwaja. To the right of Palkhi Darwaja, is a row of three dark and deep chambers. Historians believe that these were the granaries for the fort. [2] A statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji is erected in front of the ruins of the main market avenue that eventually leads to the Jagdishwar Mandir and his own Samadhi (tomb) and that of his dog Waghya. [3]

Women's Rights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Women's Rights - Essay Example The considerable distinctness in how women are treated differently when comparing the West and the East is rather alarming and perhaps the most incredulous part of all is how few people across the world actually seem to realize it. Over the past few decades, women's rights have changed dramatically, regarding issues ranging from their participation in the work force to how they are treated as a human being. Although this change may seem altogether positive, the actuality of it differs from different parts of the world. When comparing the Eastern and Western culture in reference to women, there are many things to consider, all of which can be understood more clearly by addressing the following questions: When discussing how women are treated differently in Middle East countries compared to the Western culture, the difference is quite extreme. In countries such as Canada and the United States, women are basically at the point where they can dress, speak and act however they please; whereas in a Middle Eastern country such as Iran or Iraq for example, a woman's actions and wardrobe are specifically laid out for her and expected to be followed. In the Middle East, women are seen as sources of seduction that are responsible for man's inability to resist them, and because they are considered to be the inferior sex, it is assumed to be their duty to control their sexuality. As Ayubi states, "it is believed that women must be hidden and separated from men so that the males are not overpowered by feminine sexual appeal." (p. 3). Due to this theory, there is a custom to which all women living in Middle East countries are expected to abide by - veiling. Veiling is a custom which involves the woman covering her entire body (including hair) except for the hands and face. It has become a symbol of female virtue and obedience to Allah - the Arabic name for God - and is a crucial part of the Islamic code which stresses sexual segregation. Spivey (n.d.) wrote that women are expected to dress this way due to the fact that women are merely "sexual beings who need to be controlled." Men and women are considered to be in two 'separate sphe res'; with men's role being in the 'public sphere', and women's in the 'private sphere'. Women veil themselves when they go outside, onto the street, or into shops, because they have entered the 'male sphere'. This way they are considered 'invisible' and show that they respect the men, and that they understand they are in man's domain. Middle Eastern society revolves primly around the concept of public morality. Honour and respect are of the utmost important in this type of society, and upholding this honour for the family is a vital responsibility. This is believed by some - mostly men - to be a reasonable explanation as to why women are expecte

History of the Sicilian Mafia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

History of the Sicilian Mafia - Essay Example A mafia was a person who would not comply with the rule of the central government, but remained suspicious about it. At the end of 19th century, mafia groups advanced and formed private armies that would force landowners to pay money for the protection. Eventually, this group developed and became bigger to form the current-hostile criminal organization called the Sicilian Mafia (Varese, 2011). The American mafia, formed in 1920, does not have some link to the Sicilian Mafia. However, the Sicilian Mafia and the American Mafia share a system of loyalty and conduct, which guides the behaviour of their members. Mafia-type Organizations Today, the term Mafia, refers to any organized illegal group. The mass media describes the mafia as a worldwide evil that controls all illegal activities (Allum 2007, p. 125). For example, they involve in drug trafficking, sale of radioactive substances and arms dealing. The Sicilian mafia has enjoyed the legacy of the most successful Mafia in the world du e to it long-standing duty in the civilization and its complexity. The strength of the Sicilian mafia emanates from the ability of the group to grow and spread to national, international and transnational levels, and still maintain its novel cores in the Sicilian community. The Sicilian Mafia continued to unite innovation and continuity of its traditional activities (Dickie, 2011). For example, the group continues to extort people, but today they use sophisticated methods that are technology-aided. They also select activities that will yield the group the most economic benefits. After the Second World War, both the American mafia and the Sicilian mafia groups linked in trafficking drugs, but they retained their autonomy. For the past couple of decades, the Sicilian Mafia has extended to numerous regions of the globe, and it covered all continents. This has enabled the group to deal heroin with Turkey, Asiatic clans, Middle East and France (Allum 2007, p. 127). Today the group trades Cocaine in the company of Cartels of Latin-America. Sicilian Mafia utilizes the global channels to launder money to tax havens from Switzerland. Several illegal organizations, which are similar to the Sicilian mafia, are also there in Italy, and the organizations include Camorra and the Sacra Corona Unita among others. There are also other global-historical groups like the Japanese Yakusa the Russian Mafia and the Chinese Trieds, which formed in line with the Sicilian Mafia (Jamieson 2008, p.57). It is not likely to settle on the precise amount of earnings that are obtained from organized crime activities. However, illegal capital is always above 500 billion dollars per annum. Most of this capital is obtained from arms deals, extortion and drug trafficking. Currently the illegal market has grown in complexity due to well articulated illegal deeds, as well as, the increased number of criminal groups (Jamieson 2008, p.59). This implies that no single Mafia Group enjoys the privilege of monopolizing the area of crime profession. There are many factors that facilitate the growth and development of criminal groups in society. However, the most pertinent include capitalism globalization, economy financialization and acquittal of circulation of assets. Further, drugs prohibition in many countries of the world makes the Mafias the only means of trafficking drugs (Jamieson 2008, p

Management Approach to Trade Unions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Management Approach to Trade Unions - Essay Example The reverse of this, is what certainly applies to trade unions without a stronghold of labour law or with a lack of support by such law. Distinguishing between two different models of corporate governance is now commonplace in terms of understanding management approaches to trade unions. One is the shareholder, in which the primary goal is maximization of shareholder value and only shareholders are privileged to have a strong formalized links with top management. Another is the stakeholder model in which a variety of firm constituencies (employees, suppliers, and customers) has interests that are balanced against each other in decision-making and enjoy 'voice.'1 How trade unions are viewed by management also varies according to country, alongside the extent of their influence on the organization and its decision-making and policies. With all these contentions, this paper aims to ascertain in which ways and why management approach to trade unions differ across counties, which purports to be answered with reference to two countries, particularly the United States and the Philippines. Trade unions are the principal institutions of workers in modern capitalist societies, and are referred to as collective organizations of workers with diverse interests.2 Since the days of Adam Smith, economists and other social scientists, labour unionists, and business owners have been debating the social effects of trade unionism. Many economists view it as a monopoly in the labour market whose primary impact is the increase of wages of members at the expense of the non-members and the effective management of the organization. There were frequent complaints from managers about inflexible operations and work disruptions of firms due to unions, and some social critics have painted trade unionism as socially unresponsive, elitist, and crime-riddled institutions,3 which must not be held on to by desperate workers. The other side of the contention holds that unions bear beneficial economic and political effects, stressing the significant ways in which collective bargaining agreements can pursue improved productivity and better management. Trade unionists note that unionism has the capacity to increase the retention and development of skills of the workers, improve morale, provide information on the goings-on in the shop floor, and pressure management for better efficiency in its operations.4 Besides increasing wages, trade unions provide workers with protection against unfair working conditions and arbitrary management decisions at the expense of the workers. Consequently, the presence of trade unionism in organizations gives a louder voice to the workers and enables them to pursue their demands on the management with a unified and louder voice. However, the negative view of trade unions has increased dominantly during the past thirty years.5 Several right and left advocates, while notable exceptions are considered, doubt the value and social relevance of America's organized labour movement.6 Economists have been indulged in quantifying the economic effects of collective bargaining, focusing almost exclusively on the monopoly wage impact of unions.7 Management Approach to Trade Unions in the United States Much of the seminal work on the concept of

Link Between Forgetting, Distortion, And Repression Of Memories

Link Between Forgetting, Distortion, And Repression Of Memories Cognitive psychologists and neuroscience researchers have proposed theories that explain why people forget, distort, or repress memories. From a historical perspective, Freuds contributions on the topic of memory offered insights into the concept of forgetfulness and repression (Knafo, 2009). According to Knafo, forgetfulness stems from intentionally repressing unwanted memories to avoid emotional distress. Even though forgetfulness may be intentional, unintentional forgetting of memories is frustrating. Forgetfulness can result from retrieval-induced forgetting or contextual differentiation (Lehman Malmberg, 2009; Storm, Bjork, Bjork, 2008). Forgetting effects based on the theory of interference can block or distort memories due to emotional distress (Smith Moynan, 2008). Camp, Pecher, Schmidt, and Zeelenberg (2009) argued that interference theories and inhibition theories create forgetting. Studies by Schneider and Dixon (2009) on the construction of memories indicated that disr uptions in the short-term working memory interfere with maintaining memories for later retrieval. In contrast, Fabiani, Low, Wee, Sable, and Gratton (2006) argued that memory decay due to ineffective filtering of sensory information causes forgetfulness. Memory retention can be subject to memory hazards caused by proactive or retroactive interference consequences (Chechile, 2006). Even though an individual encodes information properly, some memories are subject to interference or decay during the retrieval processing (Wixted, 2005). Wixted posited that the long-term potentiation (LTP) of synaptic transmissions in the hippocampus maintains memories and contributes to memory distortion when damaged. MacLeod and Saunders (2008) linked memory retrieval to memory distortion through an inhibitory induced mechanism. Inhibitions to avoid certain memories induce forgetting which can lead to distorted memories. Memory malfunction affect memory recall (Loftus, 2003). As Renk, Donnelly, McKinney, and Baksh (2007) pointed out, misattribution, suggestibility, and bias effects distort memories. Steffens and Mecklenbrà ¤uker (2007) argued that memories are reconstructions of schemas of past events. Memory failure distorts the information if encoding processes fail to describe the event with accuracy. False memories of repressed events result in a decline of memory accuracy over time (Brainerd, Reyna, Ceci, 2008). Although false memories can be harmless such as misremembering the name of a prior boyfriend, there are sources of harmful false memories. Memories vary in terms of their vividness. Perceptions, contexts, emotions, and cognition can produce familiarity. Fuzzier memories are phantom recollections of events that seem to be accurate but are susceptible to misinformation (Lampien, Meier, Arnal, Leding, 2005). Aminoff, Schacter, and Bar (2008) contended that people embed objects in memory with other objects of similar contexts, which activates the cortical network system in the brain responsible for processing and retrieving information. Brainerd et al. (2008) discussed the shift of false memories over time that leads to misinformation of data. Studies show that misinformation about fuzzy events can lead to suggestibility of eyewitness memories (Brainerd et al., 2008; Steffens Mecklenbrà ¤uker, 2007). People who have experienced unpleasant encounters often repress or inhibit their experiences in order to avoid anxiety (Garssen, 2007). McNally, Clancy, Barrett, Parker, Ristuccia, and Perlman (2006) posited that abused children repress their memories in an effort to forget the traumatic event. Repression describes the tendency to inhibit negative feelings associated with unpleasant experiences in order to eliminate any threats to a persons self-image (Garssen, 2007). Garssen investigated the voluntary suppression of negative emotions as a coping mechanism to control and protect the inner self. Rofà © (2008) focused on clarifying what people remember or forget. People have a tendency to forget trauma. Rofà © argued that people do remember traumatic experiences but choose to repress such memories as an innate instinct to protect their wellbeing. From a neurobiological perspective, Anderson et al. (2004) discovered that reduced hippocampus activation suppresses unwanted memories. In addition, Buchanan (2007) posited that the neural connections in the amygdala in conjunction with the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex play a role in the retrieval of emotional experiences. Definitions In reviewing the influences that forgetting, distortion, and repression has on memory, it is important to define these terms in order to clarify the relationship between encoding, storage, and retrieval of memories. Forgetting refers to the failure to retain previously encoded information in memory. Often cue-overload in memory storage prevents previously stored information from reaching consciousness (Wixted, 2005). Distorted memories refer to forgetting the actual details of prior experiences or events. Factors such as the encoding specificity of events, cue manipulation of events stored in memory, and retrieval cues can change the context of prior memories (Buchanan, 2007). Cognitive psychologists refer to this phenomenon as false recognition or false memories (Aminoff et al., 2008). Loftus (2003) described false memories as inaccurate recollections of events stored in long-term memory that people distort when recalled. Repression focuses on forgotten traumatic memories that peopl e tend to suppress in their long-term memory to avoid recalling expressive negative emotions that harm their self-image and self-worth (Garssen, 2007). Piper, Lillevik, and Kritzer (2008) argued that repressing harrowing memories is an unwilling and automatic process out of conscious awareness as soon as an unpleasant event happens. For repression to occur, a person must first encode the event but be unable to recall the event (Piper et al., 2008). Based on the information provided in the above-mentioned articles and the definitions of terms, a connection between forgetting, distortion, and repression of memories may explain the intricacies and complexities of memories in everyday life. People do forget certain memories but there may be a link between what memories a person forgets, what memories become distorted and what memories are repressed. Forgetting Knafo (2009) contended that Freuds interest in the functioning of memory played an important role in current theories and findings. Freud distinguished forgetfulness from repression by stressing its defensive nature. Repression refers to the banishing of distressing memories from consciousness to avoid emotional distress. According to Knafo, neuroscience research supports Freuds idea of repression. The right frontal lobe prevents painful memories from entering the left hemisphere to be processed and stored (Knafo, 2009). In essence, people want to forget the memories that cause distress. Although such memories are intentionally forgotten or repressed, Lehman and Malmberg (2009) discussed the relationship between intentional and unintentional forgetting. According to Lehman and Malmberg (2009), free recall is the memory task that unintentionally frustrates people. The differential rehearsal hypothesis states that changing the encoding procedures through improved rehearsal techniques should enhance recall. However, the inhibition hypothesis in a retrieval-induced forgetting domain affects recall in both unintentional and intentional situations. Retrieval-induced forgetting results from a temporary incapability to recall items from memory (Lehman Malmberg, 2009). Storm et al. (2008) hypothesized that the retrieval strength not the storage strength reduces recall. Intentionally inhibiting items from memory during retrieval creates intentional forgetting of that item while unintentional inhibition of items interferes with the recall of other items (Storm et al., 2008). Items in memory have two separate strengths. The storage strength denotes the interconnection between items in memory while the retrieval strength embodies the accessibil ity of items in memory at any given time and in certain contexts (Storm et al., 2008). The contextual differentiation hypothesis states that forgetting depends on the changes in the context during encoding. Recall depends on the persons ability to restore appropriate context cues, which reduces forgetting effects (Lehman Malmberg, 2009). For example, to recall a misplaced item, a person needs to reconstruct a mental representation of the environment in order to recall where he or she placed the item. However, in emotional situations people can block memories of items or events during retrieval to reduce distress (Smith Moynan, 2008). Smith and Moynan (2008) hypothesized that there are individual distinctions in vulnerability to forgetting effects. Individuals tend to remember emotional experiences more readily than unemotional events. When given a list of emotional violent words, traumatized individuals experienced unintentional forgetting. Interference and inhibition can invoke long-term forgetting. According to Smith and Moynan, providing appropriate independent cues reverses these effects. Their studies indicated that after giving participants emotionally laden cues, it induced a reversal of forgotten memories (Smith Moynan, 2008). To make a distinction between interference and inhibition effects, Camp et al. (2009) hypothesized that recall depends on the relationship between items when competing for retrieval. A competing relationship between items decreases the strength between the cue and target item, which interferes with memory retrieval. Interference in the retrieval of memories decreases retrieval time and creates forgetting (Camp et al., 2009). In contrast, inhibition effects are not cue dependent. Forgetting occurs even after the presentation of cues because people can actively control items in memory and can inhibit certain memories from reaching consciousness. Despite the cues used to access items, people forget these memories (Camp et al., 2009). Similarly, Schneider and Dixon (2009) argued that disruptions in short-term working memory could impede retrieval of items in memory. Mental representations of complex tasks require individuals to eliminate any distracters during retrieval. These interrupti on effects symbolize the time needed to restore mental representations of the tasks into short-term memory, which reduces forgetting and increases comprehension. Thus, suggesting the visuospatial cues are important in maintaining retrieval accuracy (Schneider Dixon, 2009). In contrast, Fabiani et al. (2006) posited that items in memory decay over time. As people age, their working memory capacity becomes overloaded with information which effects memory. The decay theory emphasizes a reduction in attention control based on complex cognitive performances. Fabiani et al. argued that memory decay is due to a reduction in filtering irrelevant sensory information rather than decline in sensory processing due to age. The ineffective filtering combined with reduced attention control creates problems in the working memory, which in turn increases forgetting (Fabiani et al., 2006). Chechile (2006) expanded on the decay theory by examining memory hazards in retention of information. Decline in memory retention and memory span indicates improper encoding procedures caused by either proactive (before learning) or retroactive (after learning) interference (Chechile, 2006). Wixted (2005) argued that failure to encode novel information induces forgetting. An alternative explanation for the interference theory and decay theory posited by Wixted (2005) is a lack of memory consolidation. Neuroscience research suggests that memories are susceptible to disruption during consolidation. Encoding memories involves the release of neurotransmitters in the presynaptic neuron, which causes the postsynaptic neuron to fire. This chaining of events known as the LTP mechanism responds to presynaptic neuron stimulation in the hippocampus (Wixted, 2005). Wixted posited that induced stimulation of the LPT in the hippocampus from drugs or alcohol serves as interference for forming new memories, causes forgetfulness of an earlier learned task, and impairs LTP maintenance. Alcohol and drugs can interfere with the encoding process that prevents memory consolidation by blocking memory formation and inducing forgetting. From a psychopharmacological perspective, Wixted contended that interference to the hippocampal LTP causes a failure of new memory to form (a nterograde amnesia) or impairs previously formed memories (retrograde amnesia) in the consolidation process of memories. Wixted hypothesized that memory consolidation after the encoding process is subject to interference based on storage decay and retrieval overload during the retention stage, which may be the cause of forgetfulness. From a neuroscience research and psychopharmacology perspective, poor memory consolidations and retention can provoke forgetting or memory distortion (Wixted, 2005). Distorted or False Memories MacLeod and Saunders (2008) hypothesized that people rely on their memories to solve everyday problems. Because todays social world is constantly changing, people need to update their memories continuously. In order to update memories, individuals have to revise their old memories with new information. However, the problem lies in determining what information is relevant. Redundant information may be necessary to solve future problems. Therefore, there is a need to retain both old and new information. The interrelationship between episodic memory of knowing where and when events happened and semantic memory of general knowledge content can create problems when accessing prior events or experiences. The retrieval-induced forgetting mechanism that inhibits unwanted memories from entering consciousness is different from the traditional interference and decay theories (MacLeod Saunders, 2008). MacLeod and Saunders argued that retrieval inhibition underlies the misinformation paradigm. F or example, when updating old memories with new memories, people tend to distort their memories when they include misleading information during the encoding process (MacLeod Saunders, 2008). MacLeod and Saunders concluded that if people activate the inhibitory mechanism during the memory retrieval process, then the new misleading information replaces the original information, which distorts memories. Their research indicates that eyewitness reports are susceptible to post-event suggestions. Loftus (2003) also studied the effects of distorted memories when recalling prior events. According to Loftus, eyewitness informants are susceptible to suggestibility and biases of misinformation. The misinformation effect can affect memories when questioning informants in a suggestive manner (Loftus, 2003). Misinformation about an actual event can influence a persons perception of that event. Planting false memories of an event exposes individuals to believing something happened when in reality it did not happen. As Loftus pointed out, peoples memories are fragile and influenced by their thoughts, by what someone has told them or led them to believe. By reinventing memories, people become the person in their own imagination because their memories have malfunctioned (Loftus, 2003). Renk et al. (2007) expanded on the memory malfunction occurrence in everyday life that affects a persons ability to recall events. Using Schacters theory of memory distortion, Renk et al. contended that misattribution, suggestibility, and biases could distort memories. The misattribution effect assigns a memory to an erroneous source or to an event that did not occur. For example, individuals who have a fuzzy recollection of an event may recall facts but misattribute the facts by linking prior experiences together to form a whole picture. Even though the event is easy to recall, it may never have happened. In addition, incorporating suggestions by other people into their memories can distort the facts (Loftus, 2003; Renk et al., 2007). Suggestibility can greatly influence eyewitness testimonies (Loftus, 2003). The questioning of eyewitnesses during an investigation or trial can lead people to believe facts that did not happen by suggestions of misleading information. Misinformation o f facts by the media or other biased accounts can influence people into believing something happened (Loftus, 2003). In this situation, bias refers to recall of events that support a persons beliefs (Renk et al., 2007).. Renk et al. (2007) discussed various types of biases that distort memories. Consistency biases promote the recall of prior beliefs to be similar to current beliefs. Hindsight biases interconnect current knowledge with past knowledge, which makes people think they knew all along what happened but simply forgot. Egocentric biases use self-enhancing mechanisms to recall prior events. Stereotypical biases manipulate memories and perceptional awareness based on diverse social cultures (Renk et al., 2007). The false memory or distorted memory phenomenon suggests that the recall of fuzzy memories is outside the control of conscious memory, which can induce forgotten, distorted or false memories (Steffens Mecklenbrà ¤uker, 2007). Steffens and Mecklenbrà ¤uker (2007) implied that discrepancies between forgotten memories and recovered memories are debatable. Memories of memorable prior events are more likely to be remembered that memories of traumatic experiences. People store interpretations of ambiguous situations in previously formed schemas. Steffens and Mecklenbrà ¤uker contended that the Fuzzy Trace Theory (FTT) incorporates two memory traces, which explains the false memory phenomenon. Verbatim traces refer to the actual physical stimuli while the gist traces puts meaning to the stimuli. Because verbatim traces decline quicker, false memories increase through the gist traces. Memory errors occur when improper encoding procedures do not separate episodic memories from gist information. As a result, memory distortion occurs because the encoding specificity failed to portray an episodic event with accuracy (Steffens Mecklenbrà ¤uker, 2007). Brainerd et al. (2008) believed that false memories are due to a decline in episodic memories. As time passes, events get fuzzier. The FTT measures the accuracy of events by administering recall tests. After giving participants misleading information about an event, they tended to distort their recollection of that event (Brainerd et al., 2008). For example, suggesting that a thief may have worn gloves and a hat elicits the illusion of a thief wearing gloves and a hat when in reality neither item may have been a fact. Brainerd et al. referred to this phenomenon as gist traces that induces perceptual inaccuracies and can lead to wrongful convictions of innocent people. Lampien et al. (2005) argued that memories vary in content but familiarity of content produces vivid false memories. Content borrowing of similar items can activate perceptions of similarity. If items share similar perceptual contexts, people integrate their perceptions to create new memories that tend to be false. Lampien et al. referred to this experience as phantom recollections of events that borrow content from previous similar perceptions, contexts, emotions, or thoughts. As a result, familiarity produces memory inaccuracies or false memories (Lampien et al., 2005). Aminoff et al. (2008) argued that object familiarity creates associations that predict what a person expects to see in a contextual setting within their environment. For example, seeing an object such as a desk activates visual representations of other items such as a computer or books that share the same context of items in an office. Aminoff et al. conducted several studies that investigated the cortical network activity in the brain. They hypothesized that increased activity in the cortical area elicits object familiarity of contextually related items, which in turn increases the possibility of falsely recognizing items as related. By using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans, Aminoff et al. were able to examine whether context affected the old to new memory recognition performance. The results indicated that the cortical regions that process contextually related items include the retrosplenial complex (RSC), the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC), and the parahippocam pal cortex (PHC) which increases in activity when participants viewed strong contextually related items. As a result, Aminoff et al. contended that people tend to store memories within a context frame, which contains prototypes of particular items. The RSC processes information is more of a gist context which interferes with the old to new responses and contributes to memory distortion as proposed by Brainerd et al. (2008) (Aminoff et al., 2008). The current trends in the study of distorted or false memories suggest that memories are vulnerable to many mitigating factors. As Steffens and Mecklenbrà ¤uker (2007) pointed out, research on the reconstructive nature of events stored in memory is mental representations of events and experiences. People use existing schemas or prototypes as a guide for storage and retrieval of memories. To solve everyday problems, people make inferences about prior experiences and relate those experiences to the current situation (Steffens Mecklenbrà ¤uker, 2007). However, if prior experiences caused trauma, Garssen (2007) hypothesized that people tend to repress or inhibit these memories to minimize distress. Repressed Memories Repression describes the desire for people to inhibit memories of unpleasant experiences to protect their positive self-image from threat. According to Garssen (2007), repressed memories can be conscious or unconscious avoidance of prior negative emotional occurrences. In some situations, people may be aware they consciously inhibit unwanted memories but empirical research shows most repressed memories are unconscious coping techniques to avoid anxiety. People who use repressive coping styles tend to distort information and make false conclusions (Garssen, 2007). McNally et al. (2006) hypothesized that repressive individuals have trouble in retrieving unpleasant situations such as child abuse. Because these individuals fail to remember specific abusive occurrences but experience related symptoms of abuse, they infer that abuse happened and simply forget the abusive situations. Their findings suggest that people who forget or suppress traumatic experiences have more difficulty in acce ssing those memories (McNally et al., 2006). Piper et al. (2008) argued that suppression and repression of traumatic experiences have separate and different meanings. For example, suppression means to defer unwanted memories from consciousness (McNally et al., 2006) while repression operates unconsciously to bury memories from reaching the conscious mind (Piper et al., 2008). Piper et al. contended that scientific research on the recovered memory phenomenon lacks credibility. Repression theorists claim that traumatized people fail to remember certain details of the event (partial amnesia), simply forget details, and deliberately avoid thinking about the event. Piper et al. believe these premises are flawed. Studies show that people do recall the essential details of harrowing experiences very vividly. The trauma experienced is usually so severe that people seldom forget which refutes the everyday forgetting phenomenon. In addition, if people intentional avoid thinking of the event they are suppressing the event not repressing t he event as mentioned in the above definitions. Piper et al. argued that traumatic experiences are no different from ordinary experiences. Memory recall works by assembling the neurons in the brain that represent memory to reconstruct a mental representation. The memory process of encoding, storage, and retrieval operate the same for any type of information, which a person can modify or reorganize before and after the encoding procedure. Piper et al. believed that this analysis supports the claim that science fails to support the repressed memory phenomenon. Although repression of memories has been a debatable topic among psychologists, Rofà © (2008) argued that repression is a valid concept. Research findings suggest that people are motivated to forget trauma intentionally. As Rofà © pointed out, intentional forgetting of trauma does not necessarily mean using repressive coping mechanisms but unintentional forgetting is susceptible to defensive coping mechanisms. He contended that repression is a multidimensional component comprised of memory, pathogenic effects, and unconsciousness. Memories of traumatic experiences overwhelm most people and motivate forgetting. As a result, people experience a type of amnesia to deal with trauma. Pathogenic effects focus on the distortions of memories that protect wellbeing. Inhibiting emotions is beneficial to a persons physiological and psychological wellness. Unconsciousness is a powerful cognitive system that protects a persons wellbeing and controls the pathogenic effects of repression (Rofà © , 2008). Garssen (2007) hypothesized that people do use repressive and defensive mechanisms to deal with unwanted memories. From a conceptual perspective, repression and anxiety defenses are coping strategies people use to prevent psychological harm. Garssen referred to repression as a tendency to act or cope within the environment in a certain manner to protect a persons self-image from harm, thus, supporting the theory that repression may be unconscious techniques to reduce distress. Although Freud suggested repression included a voluntary suppression of unwanted memories from conscious awareness, Anderson et al. (2004) proposed that neural systems within the brain control repression. From a neurobiological perspective, the hippocampus activates successful memory recollection of subjective experiences or events. In order to suppress these memories, the lateral prefrontal cortex must disengage the hippocampal activation (Anderson et al., 2004). During fMRI scans, Anderson et al. had participants deliberately suppress memories. The results indicated that the control mechanisms in the prefrontal cortex reduced the hippocampal activation, which in turn inhibited memory recall. Momentary interruptions of intrusive memory recall triggered the executive control to override retrieval of unwanted memories. Anderson et al. posited the theory that a neurobiological representation of memory helps people to control their memories in order to adjust their cognitive assessments of traumatic events. Buchanan (2007) argued that cognitive neuroscience research suggests that the amygdala enhances emotional memories. The retrieval of mood-congruent autobiographical memories increases the neural activity in the amygdala as well as the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex. The interconnection of the functional activity in these neural structures during the retrieval process triggers the recollection of emotional memories. According to Buchanan, the amygdala does not store unwanted memories but rater stimulates other neural networks to retrieve these memories to be experienced again. In essence, the interconnected activities of various neural networks elicit an affective state similar to the original experience. Thus, emotions do play an integral part in altering memory recall during the retrieval stage. From a neurobiological perspective, the neural networks associated with emotion affect how a person remembers an unpleasant event. Conclusion The current studies presented in this article on memory indicate that there may be a link between forgetting, distortion, and repression of memories. Freuds discoveries revealed the persistent consequence and complexities of memories (Anderson et al., 2004; Knafo, 2009). Research into theories that explain nature of memories and their role in everyday life have contributed to finding better ways to understanding the relationship between different aspects of memory. Forgotten memories caused by retrieval-induced mechanisms limits memory recall (Lehman Malmberg, 2009: Storm et al., 2008). The interference, inhibition, and decay theories explain blocked memories, which induce forgetting (Camp et al., 2009; Chechile, 2006; Fabiani et al., 2006; Schneider Dixon, 2009). If prior memories fail to enter consciousness, misinformation of facts may result in memory distortion. Distorted memories or false memories result from the forgotten memories of prior experiences, which people change to fit present situations. The misinformation effect creates memory malfunctions and distorts memories (Loftus, 2003; MacLeod Saunders, 2008; Renk et al., 2007). Inhibiting memories from entering consciousness creates repression Wixted, 2005). Repressed memories may be memories intentionally forgotten or distorted to relieve anxiety (Garssen, 2007; McNally et al., 2006; Rofà ©, 2008; Smith Moynan, 2008); Storm et al., 2008). From a neurobiological perspective, the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex are the main parts of the brain that play an important role in how memories are encoded, stored, and retrieved (Aminoff et al., 2008; Anderson et al., 2004; Buchanan, 2007; Knafo, 2009; Wixted, 2005). The connection between neural network functions as posited by Wixted, explains how people forget memories that have not be consolidated properly during the encoding procedure which interferes with the retention, storage, and retrieval of previously learned tasks. Aminoff et al. implied that items stored in memory are subject to increased activity in the cortical regions, which can distort memories. Both Anderson et al. and Buchanan posited that neural activity control the retrieval of information. Highly emotional events may be more susceptible to an increase in neural activity, which may modify the retrieval process of cognitive assessments. The evidence presented in this paper provides a possible explanation for the link between forgotten, distorted, and repressed memories. Future studies on the psychological and neurobiological factors that cause memory failures may give cognitive psychologists a better understanding of the relationship and implications that different aspects of memory has on problem solving and psychological wellbeing in everyday life. Memories affect actions and changing actions creates social change.

What influences demand for housing? :: Economics

What influences demand for housing? There are many key factors that will affect the demand for housing some of the easy ones to notice are population and price. These factors effect lots of goods as the larger amount of people the more consumers there will be. With price a consumer will always wish to pay the lowest amount for a good. If the price gets to high then they will find a substitute. Looking at population in more detail it isn't as simple as it would first appear. You could just say the public will buy a house and the more public there is there is more demand for the good. This in turn would allow housing companies to charge larger prices and so only the rich can afford it. The problem is that people don't have to buy a house they can rent one or share one. As well as these factors they can take out a loan to buy the house and pay it back over a period of time. Loan companies charge interest and when interest rates are low more people take out loans as they don't have to pay back such a large sum of money. With lots of loans companies coming up, it has become very easy for anyone to get loan whatever their background is like. Renting a house can be done in lots of ways. Some people make their career in it they buy lots of houses and rent them to people who are unable to buy a house. This is good for people who are only in the country for a short period of time, as you can charge them large amounts because of the location of your house. Some people don't have any money at all and are in a bad economic state and are given a house/flat by the council. They still have to pay money to live in the house but less than from private rent business. Private rent businesses are there to make a profit and will charge higher prices and have better quality goods to match. When looking at price it normally goes on a set pattern that as high prices means less demand and vis versa. The problem was this didn't happen and looking at figure 4.8. This is due to the low interest rates charged by loan companies mentioned above. When addressing others factors you need to look at the country and is it going through some sort of event. During a depression people are find it hard to get a job due to high unemployment. With this the demand for new house with the public wouldn't become a luxury that

People of the Kalahari: the Kung Culture Essay

The people of the Kalahari have a very peaceful way of living. They are secluded from the rest of the world, so they live very different lives. In order for them to survive in the Kalahari, they have to be good at hunting and gathering foods. Because the kung people live in small groups of people that consists of at most 15 huts in the dry season and 20 huts in the rainy season it is important to them to have peace among the people. They have very little crimes and or violence. Stealing is not a problem because when food is gathered, and game is killed everyone gets a portion. There is no need for stealing because the people share. Trust between the people is very strong. Every day the Kung people will gather around the fire and talk and have discussions. Because there is little crime among the people, there is no need for discipline. But on rare occasions that there is a crime, everybody will gather and have a group discussion. As they talk around the fire, they make sure to discuss things that both or upset them. When something happens, that stirs emotions like anger, hate, or jealousy they make sure to figure out what has caused it and to fix it to keep the peace. The Kung people are nomadic; they never stay in one area for very long. In the Kalahari water is an essential part of life, without it you could not survive. And since there is little water and it barely ever rains, the Kung people have to be near water. They move their villages to places that have water at reasonable distances that they can walk to. The people can’t drive to the super market or to a restaurant when their hungry, life is harsher than that in the Kalahari. If they need food, they have to hunt or gather it. The Kung people are excellent hunters. They use poison tipped arrows to shot their game. The poison tipped arrows are used as a sedative and puts the animal to sleep, and eventually kills it. But because the poison is slow acting, the people have to stalk their prey until it dies. The people are gatherers; they gather foods like roots, berries, fruits and nuts. The people of the Kalahari are a very peaceful culture. To survive they have to know the land and experts in hunting and tracking their prey, and gathering foods inorder to survive in the Kalahari.

How to save money on indoor plants essays

How to save money on indoor plants essays Plants grow in many different ways. People may think they need sun, guess what they dont. All they need is light, soil and water. There are many different types of twining plants. One twining plant I know of is the Morning Glory, also called Ipomoea. A twining plant is a vine like plant that could twine almost anything. There are plenty different kinds of Ipomoeas. Ipomoeas come in many different colors, sizes, and have different needs. The Complete Encyclopedia of Garden Flowers (2003) Ipomoea purpurea states that the Ipomoea is a really fascinating plant. The Complete Encyclopedia also states that they grow in tropical to warm temperature areas. It also says that the Ipomoea grows quickly and has many different colors including red, white, yellow, blue, and purple. They prefer full light and plenty of water. Soaking an Ipomoea seed in warm water and cutting a notch in the seed may improve germination. The A-Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants (1997) Ipomoea purpurea states that Ipomoeas are found in a great diversity of habitats like cliffs seashores and woodland. It also says that to grow Ipomoeas during winter you should water sparingly. If an Ipomoea is being grown outdoors soil should be moderately fertile, well drained with full sun. The A-Z Encyclopedia also states that some of the pests and diseases Ipomoeas might get are White Blister, Fungal Leaf Spots, Stem Rot, Thread Charcoal Rot, and Wilt. It als o says that the different kinds of Ipomoea are Ipomoea alba, batatas, coccinea, hederacea, indica, lobata, x multifida, nil, purpurea, quamoclit, and tricolor. It also says that the Ipomoea alba or also called Moonflower is mostly grown as an annul. It is sometimes three-lobed with deep green leaves, which are ten to twenty centimeters long. They are trumpet shaped and white colored. It also says that its typical height is five to twenty meters when grown as a perennial. ...

Essay on Chlorine and Hydrochloric Acid

Essay on Chlorine and Hydrochloric Acid Essay on Chlorine and Hydrochloric Acid Name: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Date Due: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Year 12 80% A 70% B AS Level Chemistry 60% C 2008 - 2009 50% D 40% E Below U 1.2 Assessed Homework % Amount of Substance 59 . 1. (a) Define the term relative atomic mass. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (2) (b) How would you calculate the mass of one mole of atoms from the mass of a single atom? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (1) (c) Sodium hydride reacts with water according to the following equation. NaH (s) + H2O (l) → NaOH (aq) + H2 (g) A 1.00 g sample of sodium hydride was added to water and the resulting solution was diluted to a volume of exactly 250 cm3 (i) Calculate the concentration in moldm-3, of sodium hydroxide solution formed. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (ii) Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas evolved, measured at 293 K and 100 kPa. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (iii) Calculate the volume of 0.112 M hydrochloric acid which would react exactly with a 25.0 cm3 sample of sodium hydroxide solution. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (8) [TOTAL 11 marks] 2. (a) Sodium carbonate forms a number of hydrates of general formula Na2CO3.xH2O A 3.01 g sample of one of these hydrates was dissolved in water and the solution made up to 250 cm3. In a titration, a 25.0 cm3 portion of this solution required 24.3 cm3 of 0.200 mol–1 dm–3 hydrochloric acid for complete reaction. The equation for this reaction is shown below. Na2CO3 + 2HCl ïÆ'   2NaCl + H2O + CO2 (i) Calculate the number of moles of HCl in 24.3 cm3 of 0.200 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid. ...........†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (ii) Deduce the number of moles of Na2CO3 in 25.0 cm3 of the Na2CO3 solution. ...........†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (iii) Hence deduce the number of moles of Na2CO3 in the original 250 cm3 of solution. ...........†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (iv) Calculate the Mr of the hydrated sodium carbonate. ...........†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. ...........†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (5) (b) In an experiment, the Mr of a different hydrated sodium carbonate was found to be 250. Use this value to calculate the number of molecules of water of crystallisation, x, in this hydrated sodium carbonate, Na2CO3.xH2O .....................†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. .....................†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. .....................†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. .....................†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (3) (c) A gas cylinder, of volume 5.00 Ãâ€" 10–3 m3, contains 325 g of argon gas. (i) Give the ideal gas equation. ...........†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (ii) Use the ideal gas equation to calculate the pressure of the argon gas in the cylinder at a temperature of 298 K. (The gas constant R = 8.31 J K–1 mol–1) ...........†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. ...........†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. ...........†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. ...........†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (4) [Total 12 marks] 3. (a) A sample of ethanol vapour, C2H5OH (Mr = 46.0), was maintained at a pressure of 100 kPa and at a temperature of 366K. (i) State the ideal gas equation. ........................................................................................................................ (ii) Use the ideal gas equation to calculate the volume, in cm3, that 1.36 g of ethanol vapour would occupy under these conditions. (The gas constant R = 8.31 J K–1 mol–1) ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................

Critically discuss the change management models using examples from Essay

Critically discuss the change management models using examples from different organisations to support your argument - Essay Example Change management refers to the process, techniques and tools that are used to manage employees in order to achieve a desired business result. It is about the transition from one stage to (problem stage) to another (the solution stage). A company’s change means that a company is restructuring, reengineering, keeping up with the trends in the industry or promoting cultural transformation. The 8-Step Process for Leading Change This model was proposed by John Kotter a Harvard professor who studied over a hundred companies that were going through change management ranging from well-established companies to small companies. He found that 70 percent of the change activities within companies fail (Burton, 2010: 45). This malfunction can be attributed by the companies’ failure to adopt a holistic approach towards change management. Therefore, Kotter came up with eight stages through which companies can achieve sustainable change and business improvement. Although the steps are depicted in a linear fashion, experience demonstrates that it is better to think of the steps in a continuous manner to ensure that the rapport of the change is maintained. In addition to, he identified possible setbacks that can negatively affect the change process (Czerniawska and May, 2004: 53). The steps are discussed below: Create urgency For change to happen in an entity, it is important for there to be an urgency for change that will help spark the motivation to get things done (Vogelsang et al., 2012: 18) This involves the identification of potential threats and come up with situations showing what is likely to happen in future and opportunities that could be exploited. It also involves the start of discussions to start the process of thought among the employees. Forming a powerful coalition This involves convincing people that change is required and this requires for strong leadership and support from key people within the entity (Cameron and Green, 2004: 34). Creating the vision for change When a company comes up with the decision to implement change in a n organization, there will probably be numerous ideas and solutions available (Morgan, n.d.). These concepts should be combined to form a general vision that people can easily understand and practice. Communicate the vision The events that take place after creation of the vision determine success or failure of the change management. Frequent communication of the vision is considered more effective than holding official routine meetings to communicate the vision. Empowering others to act on the vision This involves changing the systems that may hinder the change and moving any obstacles to the change process. Plan for short-term wins Success is known to be one of the most effective motivating factors. The company should evaluate the progress that has taken place within a one month period (Chapman, 2006). Criticism is also important at this point as t helps to identify the success or failure of the ch ange. Short- term goals are considered more achievable and this leaves failure less chances. Consolidate improvements and produce yet more change Kotter argues that projects fail because victory is announced too early (Cameron and Green, 2004: 34). Real change is considered comprehensive and companies should be careful as short term wins are only the beginning of the process towards long- term change. Institutionalize the new approaches or make the changes part of the corporate culture Finally, the

UNIT 3 INDIVIDUAL PROJECT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

UNIT 3 INDIVIDUAL PROJECT - Essay Example Preferably, all of the businesses exist for profit. Upon the conceptualization and realization of the said endeavor to put up an airline business, one must recognize the market, the competency, and the problems that are to be encountered in dealing with this kind of establishment. These illustrations points out to a certain airline which penetrate the skies and continues to soar high-the Virgin Atlantic Airlines. Wikipedia (2006), described this airline as â€Å"an airline belonging to Richard Bransons Virgin Group. It operates long-haul routes between London and North America, the Caribbean, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Australia. Its main bases are London Heathrow (LHR) and London Gatwick (LGW). Virgin has a smaller base at Manchester Airport (MAN) serving the USA and the Caribbean. The company holds a United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority Type- A Operating Licence, which permits it to carry passengers, cargo, and mail on aircraft with 20 or more seats.†1 With the saturation of key markets around the globe, the airline has a promising future with regards to its navigation to the skies as well as it is regarded as one of the rising competitors of major airlines in the world. If we are to look into the history of this airline, it was set-up in 1982 by a lawyer and by the former chief pilot of the laker airline. During its beginnings, the co-owner of the airline has no thorough knowledge in running a business airliner and this prompted him to outsource and pirate employees in other airlines who has the expertise and knowledge in handling activities concerning airline operations. â€Å" One of the owners got the idea of putting up the enterprise from London to the Falkland Islands in June 1982, when the Falklands War ended and there was an apparent need for such a service†2 If we are to analyze this strategy, the owners have succeeded in heir preliminary strategy and that is to move where your market is. In such a case, the target